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Peter Kurczynski
Dharmachakra Buddhist Center
December 8, 2006 Summary This
annotated bibliography presents a selection of original
research, review papers and books about the scientific study of
meditation. Although it is not a comprehensive literature
review, this resource does provide a starting point for
researchers and others who are interested in the study of
meditation from the perspectives of clinical and basic research.
Bibliographic information for each reference is included, as
well as an abstract. In many cases, the author has included
additional comments. Books
Austin, J. H. (1999). Zen and the
Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
Comments
This book is a gem. It has considerable
depth and breadth; it treats the science rigorously without
being overly technical. The perspectives on Zen practice are
sincere, written from the perspective of a genuine
practitioner. See also the sequel Zen-Brain Reflections for
more recent material.
Abstract
This book uses Zen Buddhism as the opening
wedge for an extraordinarily wide-ranging exploration of
consciousness. In order to understand the brain mechanisms that
produce Zen states, one needs some understanding of the anatomy,
physiology, and chemistry of the brain. Austin, a
neuroscientist and Zen practitioner, interweaves his teachings
of the brain with his teachings/personal narrative of Zen. The
science, which contains the latest relevant developments in
brain research, is both inclusive and rigorous; the Zen sections
are clear and evocative. Along the way, Austin covers such
topics as similar states in other disciplines and religions,
sleep and dreams, mental illness, consciousness-altering drugs,
and the social consquences of advanced stages of enlightenment.
Austin, J. H. (2006). Zen-Brain
Reflections. Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
Comments
This sequel to Zen and the Brain is another
gem. It provides updates based upon research in the field of
neuroscience up to 2005.
Abstract
This sequel to the widely read Zen and the
Brain continues James Austin's explorations into the key
interrelationships between Zen Buddhism and brain research. In
Zen-Brain Reflections, Austin, a clinical neurologist,
researcher, and Zen practitioner, examines the evolving
psychological processes and brain changes associated with the
path of long-range meditative training. Austin draws not only
on the latest neuroscience research and new neuroimaging studies
but also on Zen literature and his personal experience with
alternate states of consciousness.
d'Aquili, E. and A. B. Newberg (1999).
The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience.
Minneapolis, Fortress Press.
Comments
This book has useful discussions of basic
neuroanatomy, neuro-imaging and recent research. The heart of
the book centers on the author's experimental research and
theoretical model of brain function and neuro-correlates of
mystical experience. It centers around the experience of
"Absolute Unitary Being" (author's nomenclature), which is
attributed to be the kernel of mystical experience that is
alluded to in the world's religions. Probably no-one will agree
with all of the conclusions and ideas presented in this book;
some people may be offended by it; but it is a well informed
presentation of original ideas. Although the authors take
liberties with religious traditions and ways of knowing, the
book is not a materialist "hack" of religion. It does settle on
a legitimacy for spiritual ways of knowing that is unusual among
the hard sciences.
Abstract
This pioneering work by two leading medical
researchers explores the neurophysiology of religious
experience. Mapping the basic functions of the brain, the
authors focus on structures most relevant to human experience,
emotion, and cognition. On this basis they plot just how the
brain is involved in mystical experiences. Successive chapters
employ this understanding to explore myth-making, ritual and
liturgy, meditation, near-death experiences, and theology
itself. Original, daring, and widely acclaimed, the authors'
research bears exciting implications for philosophy, science,
and the future of religion itself.
Gazzaniga, M. S., R. B. Ivry and G. R.
Mangun (2002). Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the
Mind. New York, W. W. Norton & Co.
Comments
This book is an essential reference book
for the field of cognitive neuroscience. Here you will find the
basics of neuroanatomy--how to find your way around the brain,
from ventral to dorsal, rostral to caudal (and what those words
mean!). Perceptual functions, Attention, Imaging and diagnostic
modalities, and plenty of bizarre disorders that reveal much
about the mind and the brain can all be found here.
Abstract
When first published in 1998, Cognitive
Neuroscience revolutionized the teaching of psychology by
unifying cognitive psychology, behavioral neurology, and
behavioral neuroscience in an accessible, user-friendly text for
undergraduates. Throughout, the authors used clinical case
studies to humanize the scientific content and a lavish art
program to convey the tools and methods that cognitive
neuroscientists use to study the human mind. Now they have
strengthened the text's interdisciplinary approach to
understanding how the mind works.
Goleman, D. (2003). Destructive
Emotions: How Can We Overcome Them? A Scientific Dialogue with
the Dalai Lama. New York, Bantam Dell.
Comments
Book resulting from the Mind and Life
meeting in March 2000. Notable scientific results include the
left/right EEG asymmetry work of R.J. Davidson et al, including
the "Happy Geshe" (see 340). This is a useful popular account
of various converging disciplines of psychology and
neuroscience. Also useful are comments about Buddhist
philosophy and psychology. For instance, see the Dalai Lama's
comment on cognition vs. perception (p. 93) (paraphrasing):
cognition is relative, but perception is absolute.
Abstract
Buddhist philosophy tells us that all
personal unhappiness and interpersonal conflict lie in the
"three poisons": craving, anger and delusion. It also provides
antidotes of astonishing psychological sophistication--which are
now being confirmed by modern neuroscience. With new high-tech
devices, scientists can peer inside the brain centers that calm
the inner storms of rage and fear. They also can demonstrate
that awareness-training strategies such as meditation strengthen
emotional stability--and greatly enhance our positive moods.
Journal Papers
Reviews
Astin, J. A. (2004). "Mind-body therapies
for the management of pain." Clinical Journal of Pain
20(1): 27-32.
Abstract
This paper reviews the evidence for
mind-body therapies (eg, relaxation, meditation, imagery,
cognitive-behavioral therapy) in the treatment of pain-related
medical conditions and suggests directions for future research
in these areas. Based on evidence from randomized controlled
trials and in many cases, systematic reviews of the literature,
the following recommendations can be made: 1) multi-component
mind-body approaches that include some combination of stress
management, coping skills training, cognitive restructuring and
relaxation therapy may be an appropriate adjunctive treatment
for chronic low back pain; 2) multimodal mind-body approaches
such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, particularly when combined
with an educational/informational component, can be an effective
adjunct in the management of rheumatoid and osteoarthritis; 3)
relaxation and thermal biofeedback may be considered as a
treatment for recurrent migraine while relaxation and muscle
biofeedback can be an effective adjunct or stand alone therapy
for recurrent tension headache; 4) an array of mind-body
therapies (e.g., imagery, hypnosis, relaxation) when employed
pre-surgically, can improve recovery time and reduce pain
following surgical procedures; 5) mind-body approaches may be
considered as adjunctive therapies to help ameliorate pain
during invasive medical procedures.
Astin, J. A. and K. Forys (2004).
"Psychosocial determinants of health and illness: integrating
mind, body, and spirit." Advances in Mind-Body Medicine
20(4): 14-21.
Comments
Here is somebody besides Ken Wilber who
cites Ken Wilber.
Abstract
Presented in this paper is a review of some
of the evidence linking psychosocial factors to a variety of
health outcomes. Drawing upon the work of the philosopher Ken
Wilber, we begin with a consideration of some of the historic
roots of the mind-body split. As will be seen, Wilber argues
that in the premodern era, "mind" and "body" were essentially
fused (ie, thought of as not separate); with the dawn in the
West of the Enlightenment and the emergence and subsequent
dominance of the empiric-scientific mode of inquiry, the mind
and body became separate; and in the postmodern world, the task
now is one of reintegrating mind and body, an undertaking with
obvious implications for the field of medicine. With the goal of
helping in this mind-body reintegration, we first summarize the
epidemiological findings examining the relation between various
psychosocial factors (personality, mood states, and cognitive
factors) and physical health. We then review some of the
physiological and mechanistic data that link mental-emotional
factors (e.g., psychosocial stress) with physical function and
health. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic implications of
these findings.
Astin, J. A., S. L. Shapiro, D. M.
Eisenberg and K. L. Forys (2003). "Mind-body medicine: state of
the science, implications for practice." Journal of the
American Board of Family Practice 16(2): 131-47.
Comments
This paper is a review of clinical studies
of mind body therapies for various types of illness. The
strongest evidence for effectiveness of mind body therapies is
in the treatment of cardiovascular disease; for instance, the
addition of psychosocial treatments to standard medical care
reduced mortality by 41% over two years, and reduction in
non-fatal cardiac recurrences by 46%. Biofeedback has been
demonstrated to improve incontinence and migraine headaches.
Mind body therapies have been demonstrated to improve quality of
life, mood and coping in cancer patients; there is debate over
whether these therapies also improve survival. Arthritis
patients benefited from a mind body medicine program. Insomnia
sufferers also benefit from mind body therapies, particularly
over the long term (6-24 months), where these therapies
outperform pharmacological interventions. Surgery patients also
benefit from mind body therapies, with reduced length of
hospital stay (by 1.5 days) compared to controls, as well as
improvement on other indicators (pain, recovery time, medication
use). 3/5
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Although emerging evidence
during the past several decades suggests that psychosocial
factors can directly influence both physiologic function and
health outcomes, medicine had failed to move beyond the
biomedical model, in part because of lack of exposure to the
evidence base supporting the biopsychosocial model. The
literature was reviewed to examine the efficacy of
representative psychosocial-mind-body interventions, including
relaxation, (cognitive) behavioral therapies, meditation,
imagery, biofeedback, and hypnosis for several common clinical
conditions. METHODS: An electronic search was undertaken of the
MEDLINE, PsycLIT, and the Cochrane Library databases and a
manual search of the reference sections of relevant articles for
related clinical trials and reviews of the literature. Studies
examining mind-body interventions for psychological disorders
were excluded. Owing to space limitations, studies examining
more body-based therapies, such as yoga and tai chi chuan, were
also not included. Data were extracted from relevant systematic
reviews, meta-analyses, and randomized controlled trials.
RESULTS: Drawing principally from systematic reviews and
meta-analyses, there is considerable evidence of efficacy for
several mind-body therapies in the treatment of coronary artery
disease (eg, cardiac rehabilitation), headaches, insomnia,
incontinence, chronic low back pain, disease and
treatment-related symptoms of cancer, and improving postsurgical
outcomes. We found moderate evidence of efficacy for mind-body
therapies in the areas of hypertension and arthritis. Additional
research is required to clarify the relative efficacy of
different mind-body therapies, factors (such as specific patient
characteristics) that might predict more or less successful
outcomes, and mechanisms of action. Research is also necessary
to examine the cost offsets associated with mind-body therapies.
CONCLUSIONS: There is now considerable evidence that an array of
mind-body therapies can be used as effective adjuncts to
conventional medical treatment for a number of common clinical
conditions. [References: 160]
Barnes, V., R. Schneider, C. Alexander and
F. Staggers (1997). "Stress, stress reduction, and hypertension
in African Americans: an updated review." Journal of the
National Medical Association 89(7): 464-76.
Abstract
This is a comprehensive and integrative
review of multiple factors underlying the greater prevalence of
hypertension in African Americans compared with whites. Evidence
linking stress with hypertension and cardiovascular disease in
African Americans is reviewed. A survey of mechanisms of
hypertension in African Americans and existing behavioral
strategies for the treatment of hypertension is presented. Given
that the excess of hypertension may be mediated in part by
behavioral factors operating through biological mechanisms, a
case is presented for behavioral stress reduction measures. This
review of stress reduction techniques especially the
Transcendental Mediation program for the treatment of
hypertension in African Americans highlights current issues
facing the field. New information is provided to help direct
future nonpharmacological research and practice in hypertension
to prevent morbidity and premature mortality in this underserved
population.
Cahn, B. R. and J. Polich (2006).
"Meditation States and Traits: EEG, ERP, and Neuroimaging
Studies." Psychological Bulletin 132(2): 180-211.
Comments
At last, here is a comprehensive, thorough
and rigorous review of the literature on the study of
meditation! The authors have put together an immense list of
references, and an excellent survey of the field, from a modern
neuroscience perspective. Tables have detailed reports of
specific experimental findings, organized by state vs. trait
effects of meditation. Includes mindfulness, yoga, Tibetan
Buddhist, TM and Zen meditation, as well as Christian prayer.
4/5.
Abstract
Neuroelectric and imaging studies of
meditation are reviewed. Electroencephalographic measures
indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with theta
and alpha activation related to proficiency of practice. Sensory
evoked potential assessment of concentrative meditation yields
amplitude and latency changes for some components and practices.
Cognitive event-related potential evaluation of meditation
implies that practice changes attentional allocation.
Neuroimaging studies indicate increased regional cerebral blood
flow measures during meditation. Taken together, meditation
appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulate cortex and
dorsolateral prefrontal areas. Neurophysiological meditative
state and trait effects are variable but are beginning to
demonstrate consistent outcomes for research and clinical
applications. Psychological and clinical effects of meditation
are summarized, integrated, and discussed with respect to
neuroimaging data., (C) 2006 by the American Psychological
Association
Gillihan, S. J. and M. J. Farah (2005).
Is Self Special? A Critical Review of Evidence From Experimental
Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience. [Article],
Psychological Bulletin January 2005;131(1):76-97.
Abstract
Varied research findings have been taken to
support the claim that humans' representation of the self is
"special," that is, that it emerges from systems that are
physically and functionally distinct from those used for more
general purpose cognitive processing. The authors evaluate this
claim by reviewing the relevant literatures and addressing the
criteria for considering a system special, the various
operationalizations of self, and how the studies' findings
relate to the conclusions drawn. The authors conclude that many
of the claims for the special status of self-related processing
are premature given the evidence and that the various
self-related research programs do not seem to be illuminating a
unitary, common system, despite individuals' subjective
experience of a unified self., (C) 2005 by the American
Psychological Association
Newberg, A. B. and J. Iversen (2003). "The
neural basis of the complex mental task of meditation:
neurotransmitter and neurochemical considerations." Medical
Hypotheses 61(2): 282-91.
Comments
Good review of previous studies of
meditators. Presents model of neurological correlate of
meditative states. See also the book by d'Aquili and Newberg
"The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious
Experience." Comment on this paper in later edition of
journal. See Research Notes. 3/5.
Abstract
Meditation is a complex mental process
involving changes in cognition, sensory perception, affect,
hormones, and autonomic activity. Meditation has also become
widely used in psychological and medical practices for stress
management as well as a variety of physical and mental
disorders. However, until now, there has been limited
understanding of the overall biological mechanism of these
practices in terms of the effects in both the brain and body. We
have previously described a rudimentary neuropsychological model
to explain the brain mechanisms underlying meditative
experiences. This paper provides a substantial development by
integrating neurotransmitter systems and the results of recent
brain imaging advances into the model. The following is a review
and synthesis of the current literature regarding the various
neurophysiological mechanisms and neurochemical substrates that
underlie the complex processes of meditation. It is hoped that
this model will provide hypotheses for future biological and
clinical studies of meditation.
Rudrauf, D., A. Lutz, D. Cosmelli, J.-P.
Lachaux and M. Le Van Quyen (2003). "From autopoiesis to
neurophenomenology: Francisco Varela's exploration of the
biophysics of being." Biological Research 36(1):
27-65.
Abstract
This paper reviews in detail Francisco
Varela's work on subjectivity and consciousness in the
biological sciences. His original approach to this "hard
problem" presents a subjectivity that is radically intertwined
with its biological and physical roots. It must be understood
within the framework of his theory of a concrete, embodied
dynamics, grounded in his general theory of autonomous systems.
Through concepts and paradigms such as biological autonomy,
embodiment and neurophenomenology, the article explores the
multiple levels of circular causality assumed by Varela to play
a fundamental role in the emergence of human experience. The
concept of biological autonomy provides the necessary and
sufficient conditions for characterizing biological life and
identity as an emergent and circular self-producing process.
Embodiment provides a systemic and dynamical framework for
understanding how a cognitive self--a mind--can arise in an
organism in the midst of its operational cycles of internal
regulation and ongoing sensorimotor coupling. Global subjective
properties can emerge at different levels from the interactions
of components and can reciprocally constrain local processes
through an ongoing, recursive morphodynamics. Neurophenomenology
is a supplementary step in the study of consciousness. Through a
rigorous method, it advocates the careful examination of
experience with first-person methodologies. It attempts to
create heuristic mutual constraints between biophysical data and
data produced by accounts of subjective experience. The aim is
to explicitly ground the active and disciplined insight the
subject has about his/her experience in a biophysical emergent
process. Finally, we discuss Varela's essential contribution to
our understanding of the generation of consciousness in the
framework of what we call his "biophysics of being."
[References: 95]
Ward, L. M. (2003). "Synchronous neural
oscillations and cognitive processes." Trends in Cognitive
Sciences 7(12): 553-559.
Comments
Spiking neurons can be modeled by a van der
Pol oscillator. Relaxation oscillators in general provide a
model for neural behavior, including synchronous oscillations.
Alpha and theta band oscillations are correlated with memory
functions, see section 2. Gamma and alpha oscillations are
correlated with attention, in section 3. Large amplitude alpha
waves in particular are understood to correspond with
"suppression of distractions." plk - this may explain the
increased alpha power observed during meditation. The evidence
for correlation of synchronous gamma band neural firing and
attention is discussed in section 4; gamma band oscillations may
be the neural correlate of conscious awareness. 4/5.
Abstract
The central problem for cognitive
neuroscience is to describe how cognitive processes arise from
brain processes. This review summarizes the recent evidence that
synchronous neural oscillations reveal much about the origin and
nature of cognitive processes such as memory, attention and
consciousness. Memory processes are most closely related to
theta and gamma rhythms, whereas attention seems closely
associated with alpha and gamma rhythms. Conscious awareness may
arise from synchronous neural oscillations occurring globally
throughout the brain rather than from the locally synchronous
oscillations that occur when a sensory area encodes a stimulus.
These associations between the dynamics of the brain and
cognitive processes indicate progress towards a unified theory
of brain and cognition.
Original Research
Alexander, C. N., R. H. Schneider, F.
Staggers, W. Sheppard, B. M. Clayborne, M. Rainforth, J.
Salerno, K. Kondwani, S. Smith, K. G. Walton and B. Egan (1996).
"Trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African
Americans. II. Sex and risk subgroup analysis." Hypertension
28(2): 228-37.
Abstract
Our objective was to test the short-term
efficacy and feasibility of two stress-reduction approaches for
the treatment of hypertension in older African Americans,
focusing on subgroup analysis by sex and by high and low risk on
six measures of hypertension risk: psychosocial stress, obesity,
alcohol use, physical inactivity, dietary sodium-potassium
ratio, and a composite measure. The study involved a follow-up
subgroup analysis of a 3-month randomized, controlled,
single-blind trial conducted in a primary care, inner-city
health center. Subjects were 127 African American men and women,
aged 55 to 85 years, with diastolic pressure of 90 to 104 mm Hg
and systolic pressure less than or equal to 179 mm Hg. Of these,
16 did not complete follow-up blood pressure measurements.
Mental and physical stress-reduction approaches-the
Transcendental Meditation technique and progressive muscle
relaxation, respectively-were compared with a life-style
modification education control and with each other. Both
systolic and diastolic pressures changed from baseline to
follow-up for both sexes and for high and low risk level
(defined by median split) on the six measures of hypertension
risk. Compared with education control subjects, women practicing
the Transcendental Meditation technique showed adjusted declines
in systolic (10.4 mm Hg, P < .01) and diastolic (5.9 mm Hg, P <
.01) pressures. Men in this treatment group also declined in
both systolic (12.7 mm Hg, P < .01) and diastolic (8.1 mm Hg, P
< .001) pressures compared with control subjects. Women
practicing muscle relaxation did not show a significant decrease
compared with control subjects, and men declined significantly
in diastolic pressure only (6.2 mm Hg, P < .01). For the measure
of psychosocial stress, both the high and low risk subgroups
using the Transcendental Meditation technique declined in
systolic (high risk, P = .0003; low, P = .06) and diastolic
(high risk, P = .001; low, P = .008) pressures compared with
control subjects, whereas for muscle relaxation, blood pressure
dropped significantly only in the high risk subgroup and only
for systolic pressure (P = .03) compared with control subjects.
For each of the other five risk measures, Transcendental
Meditation subjects in both the high and low risk groups
declined significantly in systolic and diastolic pressures
compared with control subjects. Effects of stress reduction on
blood pressure were found to generalize to both sexes and
diverse risk factor subgroups and were significantly greater in
the Transcendental Meditation treatment group. These effects
(along with high compliance) even in individuals with multiple
risk factors for hypertension clearly warrant longer-term
investigation in this and other populations.
Astin, J. A. (1997). "Stress reduction
through mindfulness meditation. Effects on psychological
symptomatology, sense of control, and spiritual experiences."
Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics 66(2): 97-106.
Comments
Study to determine if mindfulness
meditation program can influence scores on several psychological
tests. In particular, the investigator was interested in
whether mindfulness meditation would improve metrics on the
Shapiro Control Inventory, a test that assesses subjects
subjective experience of control (in their lives?). Experiment
group consisted of approximately 10 college students, who
participated in an 8 week program; the control group did not
have any intervention. Results were marginally statistically
significant. Paper has a useful summary of psychological tests
and other mindfulness meditation studies in the introduction.
3/5
Abstract
BACKGROUND: This study examined the effects
of an 8-week stress reduction program based on training in
mindfulness meditation. Previous research efforts suggesting
this program may be beneficial in terms of reducing
stress-related symptomatology and helping patients cope with
chronic pain have been limited by a lack of adequate comparison
control group. METHODS: Twenty-eight individuals who volunteered
to participate in the present study were randomized into either
an experimental group or a nonintervention control group.
RESULTS: Following participation, experimental subjects, when
compared with controls, evidenced significantly greater changes
in terms of: (1) reductions in overall psychological
symptomatology; (2) increase in overall domain-specific sense of
control and utilization of an accepting or yielding mode of
control in their lives, and (3) higher scores on a measure of
spiritual experiences. CONCLUSIONS: The techniques of
mindfulness meditation, with their emphasis on developing
detached observation and awareness of the contents of
consciousness, may represent a powerful cognitive behavioral
coping strategy for transforming the ways in which we respond to
life events. They may also have potential for relapse prevention
in affective disorders.
Astin, J. A., B. M. Berman, B. Bausell,
W.-L. Lee, M. Hochberg and K. L. Forys (2003). "The efficacy of
mindfulness meditation plus Qigong movement therapy in the
treatment of fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial. [see
comment]." Journal of Rheumatology 30(10):
2257-62.
Comments
See Research Notes for comment on this
paper in later issue of Journal.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To test the short and longterm
benefits of an 8 week mind-body intervention that combined
training in mindfulness meditation with Qigong movement therapy
for individuals with fibromyalgia syndrome (FM). METHODS: A
total of 128 individuals with FM were randomly assigned to the
mind-body training program or an education support group that
served as the control. Outcome measures were pain, disability (Fibromyalgia
Impact Questionnaire), depression, myalgic score (number and
severity of tender points), 6 minute walk time, and coping
strategies, which were assessed at baseline and at 8, 16, and 24
weeks. RESULTS: Both groups registered statistically significant
improvements across time for the Fibromyalgia Impact
Questionnaire, Total Myalgic Score, Pain, and Depression, and no
improvement in the number of feet traversed in the 6 minute
walk. However, there was no difference in either the rate or
magnitude of these changes between the mind-body training group
and the education control group. Salutary changes occurring by
the eighth week (which corresponded to the end of the mind-body
and education control group sessions) were largely maintained by
both groups throughout the 6 month followup period. CONCLUSION:
While both groups showed improvement on a number of outcome
variables, there was no evidence that the multimodal mind-body
intervention for FM was superior to education and support as a
treatment option. Additional randomized controlled trials are
needed before interventions of this kind can be recommended for
treatment of FM.
B. K. Anand, G. S. C., B. Singh (1961).
"Investigations on Yogis Claiming To Stop Their Heart Beats."
Indian Journal of Medical Research 49(1): 90-94.
Comments
Three yogis engaged in a yogic practice
that included contractions of thoracic and abdominal muscles.
Heart sounds could not be heard through stethoscope, and
arterial pulse could not be felt during these performances;
however EKG showed that heart was contracting normally
throughout. These yogis were not able to demonstrate control of
the autonomic heart function (via vagus nerve). Only skeletal
muscles were manipulated in this procedure. 3/5
Abstract
Development of voluntary control over
autonomic activities of the body has been claimed by Yogis.
Swami Vivekanand (Yoga, 1914) wrote that 'there is not a single
muscle in the body over which man cannot establish perfect
control by practice, even the heart can be made to stop or go on
at his (Yogi's) bidding, and investigations have already been
made (Rele, 1926; Brosse, 1946) to scientifically evaluate
whether Yogis can voluntarily stop the beating of their hearts,
but the results are not conclusive. Studies were, therefore,
undertaken to assess these claims of Yogis.
B. K. Anand, G. S. C., B. Singh (1961).
"Some Aspects of Electroencephalographic Studies in Yogis."
Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology 13:
452-456.
Comments
Expert Yoga meditators studied with EEG
recordings during meditation. Prominent alpha band activity was
recorded, with enhanced amplitude during meditation. Two yogis
demonstrated increased pain threshold, by immersing hand in cold
water (4 deg C) for 55 minutes with no report of discomfort.
EEG during this time showed constant alpha activity. Yogis were
not disturbed by loud noises, strong light, heat or vibration;
these distractions did not alter the alpha wave EEG activity
during meditation, but they did so repeatedly during resting
state. 3/5
B. K. Anand, G. S. C., Baldev Singh (1961).
"Studies on Shri Ramanand Yogi During His Stay in an Air-Tight
Box." Indian Journal of Medical Research 49(1):
82-89.
Comments
Great title! Expert Yoga meditator was
studied to investigate claims of control of autonomic functions
with meditation. Yogi was placed in air-tight box, in order to
monitor oxygen consumption (metabolism). Yogi remained in box
for 10 hours on two occasions. Basal oxygen requirement was
19.5 liters/hour. During meditation, the oxygen consumption was
reduced to as low as 10 liters/hour, with 13.5 liters/hour
average. Heart rate decreased from 80 bpm to between 60-72 bpm.
At the (start) end of the experiment, O2 concentration was
(19.93%)14.9% and CO2 was (1.0%) 5.0%; the yogi did not develop
abnormal breathing or heart rate in response to reduced O2 and
increased CO2. Controls were two normal individuals who stayed
in the box for 4, 7 hours respectively. Their O2 consumption
and CO2 expiration remained at basal levels (control #1) or rose
above basal levels (control #2). EEG recordings of the yogi
showed alpha band activity and "low voltage fast activity" but
no delta band activity that would be indicative of deep sleep.
These studies by Anand are important because they are possibly
the first to document changes in autonomic activity among expert
meditators. 4/5
Benson, H., M. S. Malhotra, R. F. Goldman,
G. D. Jacobs and P. J. Hopkins (1990). "Three case reports of
the metabolic and electoencephalographic changes during advanced
Buddhist meditation techniques." Behavioral Medicine
16: 90-95.
Comments
For two subjects, metabolism increased
during Tummo meditation (respiration increased for one and
decreased for the other). For a third subject, the metabolism
decreased during Tummo (respiration also decreased). Possibly
this difference is due to the third subject accomplishing the
dissolution into the central channel, while the others did not?
This is an important documentation of the metabolic changes that
are possible through meditation, by advanced yogis. This is the
only known report of studies of Tummo meditation. 4/5
Abstract
To examine the extent to which advanced
meditative practices might alter body metabolism and the
electroencephalogram (EEG), we investigated three Tibetan
Buddhist monks living in the Rumtek monastery in Sikkim, India.
In a study carried out in February 1988, we found that during
the practice of several different meditative practices, resting
metabolism (V\dot O_2) could be both raised (up to 61%) and
lowered (down to 64%). The reduction from rest is the largest
ever reported. On the EEG, marked asymmetry in alpha and beta
activity between the hemispheres and increased beta activity
were present. From these three case reports, we conclude that
advanced meditative practices may yield different alterations in
metabolism (there are also forms of meditation that increase
metabolism) and that the decreases in metabolism can be
striking.
Carlson, L. E. and S. N. Garland (2005).
"Impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on sleep,
mood, stress and fatigue symptoms in cancer outpatients."
International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 12(4):
278-85.
Abstract
Sleep disturbance is a very common problem
for cancer patients that has largely not been addressed in the
clinical intervention literature. Mindfulness meditation has
demonstrated clinical benefits for a variety of patient
populations in other areas of functioning. This study examined
the effects of an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
program on the sleep quality of a heterogeneous sample of 63
cancer patients. Overall sleep disturbance was significantly
reduced (p < .001) and participants reported that their sleep
quality had improved (p .001). There was also a significant
reduction in stress (p < .001), mood disturbance (p = .001), and
fatigue (p < .001). The associations among these changes and
implications for improving quality of life of cancer patients
are discussed.
Carlson, L. E., M. Speca, K. D. Patel and
E. Goodey (2003). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction in
relation to quality of life, mood, symptoms of stress, and
immune parameters in breast and prostate cancer outpatients."
Psychosomatic Medicine 65(4): 571-81.
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the
relationships between a mindfulness-based stress reduction
meditation program for early stage breast and prostate cancer
patients and quality of life, mood states, stress symptoms,
lymphocyte counts, and cytokine production. METHODS: Forty-nine
patients with breast cancer and 10 with prostate cancer
participated in an 8-week MBSR program that incorporated
relaxation, meditation, gentle yoga, and daily home practice.
Demographic and health behavior variables, quality of life (EORTC
QLQ C-30), mood (POMS), stress (SOSI), and counts of NK, NKT, B,
T total, T helper, and T cytotoxic cells, as well as NK and T
cell production of TNF, IFN-gamma, IL-4, and IL-10 were assessed
pre- and postintervention. RESULTS: Fifty-nine and 42 patients
were assessed pre- and postintervention, respectively.
Significant improvements were seen in overall quality of life,
symptoms of stress, and sleep quality. Although there were no
significant changes in the overall number of lymphocytes or cell
subsets, T cell production of IL-4 increased and IFN-gamma
decreased, whereas NK cell production of IL-10 decreased. These
results are consistent with a shift in immune profile from one
associated with depressive symptoms to a more normal profile.
CONCLUSIONS: MBSR participation was associated with enhanced
quality of life and decreased stress symptoms in breast and
prostate cancer patients. This study is also the first to show
changes in cancer-related cytokine production associated with
program participation.
Carlson, L. E., M. Speca, K. D. Patel and
E. Goodey (2004). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction in
relation to quality of life, mood, symptoms of stress and levels
of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and
melatonin in breast and prostate cancer outpatients."
Psychoneuroendocrinology 29(4): 448-74.
Comments
No significant results.
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the
relationships between a mindfulness-based stress reduction
meditation program for early stage breast and prostate cancer
patients and quality of life, mood states, stress symptoms, and
levels of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS) and
melatonin. METHODS: Fifty-nine patients with breast cancer and
10 with prostate cancer enrolled in an eight-week
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program that
incorporated relaxation, meditation, gentle yoga, and daily home
practice. Demographic and health behavior variables, quality of
life, mood, stress, and the hormone measures of salivary
cortisol (assessed three times/day), plasma DHEAS, and salivary
melatonin were assessed pre- and post-intervention. RESULTS:
Fifty-eight and 42 patients were assessed pre- and
post-intervention, respectively. Significant improvements were
seen in overall quality of life, symptoms of stress, and sleep
quality, but these improvements were not significantly
correlated with the degree of program attendance or minutes of
home practice. No significant improvements were seen in mood
disturbance. Improvements in quality of life were associated
with decreases in afternoon cortisol levels, but not with
morning or evening levels. Changes in stress symptoms or mood
were not related to changes in hormone levels. Approximately 40%
of the sample demonstrated abnormal cortisol secretion patterns
both pre- and post-intervention, but within that group patterns
shifted from "inverted-V-shaped" patterns towards more
"V-shaped" patterns of secretion. No overall changes in DHEAS or
melatonin were found, but nonsignificant shifts in DHEAS
patterns were consistent with healthier profiles for both men
and women. CONCLUSIONS: MBSR program enrollment was associated
with enhanced quality of life and decreased stress symptoms in
breast and prostate cancer patients, and resulted in possibly
beneficial changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
functioning. These pilot data represent a preliminary
investigation of the relationships between MBSR program
participation and hormone levels, highlighting the need for
better-controlled studies in this area.
Carlson, L. E., Z. Ursuliak, E. Goodey, M.
Angen and M. Speca (2001). "The effects of a mindfulness
meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms
of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up."
Supportive Care in Cancer 9(2): 112-23.
Abstract
The goals of this work were to assess the
effects of participation in a mindfulness meditation-based
stress reduction program on mood disturbance and symptoms of
stress in cancer outpatients immediately after and 6 months
after program completion. A convenience sample of eligible
cancer patients were enrolled after they had given informed
consent. All patients completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS)
and Symptoms of Stress Inventory (SOSI) both before and after
the intervention and 6 months later. The intervention consisted
of a mindfulness meditation group lasting 1.5 h each week for 7
weeks, plus daily home meditation practice. A total of 89
patients, average age 51, provided pre-intervention data. Eighty
patients provided post-intervention data, and 54 completed the
6-month follow-up The participants were heterogeneous with
respect to type and stage of cancer. Patients' scores decreased
significantly from before to after the intervention on the POMS
and SOSI total scores and most subscales, indicating less mood
disturbance and fewer symptoms of stress, and these improvements
were maintained at the 6-month follow-up. More advanced stages
of cancer were associated with less initial mood disturbance,
while more home practice and higher initial POMS scores
predicted improvements on the POMS between the pre- and
post-intervention scores. Female gender and more education were
associated with higher initial SOSI scores, and improvements on
the SOSI were predicted by more education and greater initial
mood disturbance. This program was effective in decreasing mood
disturbance and stress symptoms for up to 6 months in both male
and female patients with a wide variety of cancer diagnoses,
stages of illness, and educational background, and with
disparate ages.
Carter, O. L., D. E. Presti, C.
Callistemon, Y. Ungerer, G. B. Liu and J. D. Pettigrew (2005).
"Meditation alters perceptual rivalry in Tibetan Buddhist
monks." Current Biology 15(11): R412-R413.
Comments
Experiments performed on long time Buddhist
meditators (experts). Perceptual rivalry was initiated by
having subjects look through a binocular headset. Normal
subjects have alternating perception between competing rival
stimuli. Practitioners were studied after meditation on
compassion (control) and "one-pointedness" meditation. Longer
stability was observed during and following the "one-pointedness"
meditation, while the meditation on compassion had no effect on
stability. Some monks were able to maintain stability over the
duration of the 5 minute observation. Motion induced blindness
was also studied; and meditators were compared with non-meditators.
Meditators showed greater effect than non-meditators.
Critiques: The exact nature of the "one-pointedness" meditation
is not explained. Also, the study would have benefited from
greater discussion of non-meditator controls. Finally, the
significance of this observation in the larger context of
cognitive processes is not clearly explained. 2/5
Davidson, R. J., J. Kabat-Zinn, J.
Schumacher, M. Rosenkranz, D. Muller, S. F. Santorelli, F.
Urbanowski, A. Harrington, K. Bonus and J. F. Sheridan (2003).
"Alterations in brain and immune function produced by
mindfulness meditation. [see comment]." Psychosomatic
Medicine 65(4): 564-70.
Comments
Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction training
was used in healthy employees of a biotech company for 8 weeks.
After the training, subjects showed greater left/right EEG
asymmetry, which is a metric for positive affect, as well as
greater immune response to influenza vaccine. There was some
discussion about this paper in succeeding editions of the
journal. See Research Notes. 3/5.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: The underlying changes in
biological processes that are associated with reported changes
in mental and physical health in response to meditation have not
been systematically explored. We performed a randomized,
controlled study on the effects on brain and immune function of
a well-known and widely used 8-week clinical training program in
mindfulness meditation applied in a work environment with
healthy employees. METHODS: We measured brain electrical
activity before and immediately after, and then 4 months after
an 8-week training program in mindfulness meditation.
Twenty-five subjects were tested in the meditation group. A
wait-list control group (N = 16) was tested at the same points
in time as the meditators. At the end of the 8-week period,
subjects in both groups were vaccinated with influenza vaccine.
RESULTS: We report for the first time significant increases in
left-sided anterior activation, a pattern previously associated
with positive affect, in the meditators compared with the
nonmeditators. We also found significant increases in antibody
titers to influenza vaccine among subjects in the meditation
compared with those in the wait-list control group. Finally, the
magnitude of increase in left-sided activation predicted the
magnitude of antibody titer rise to the vaccine. CONCLUSIONS:
These findings demonstrate that a short program in mindfulness
meditation produces demonstrable effects on brain and immune
function. These findings suggest that meditation may change
brain and immune function in positive ways and underscore the
need for additional research.
Decety, J. and J. A. Sommerville (2003).
"Shared representations between self and other: a social
cognitive neuroscience view." Trends in Cognitive Sciences
7(12): 527-533.
Comments
Authors argue that representations of self
and other are overlapping but distinct. Inferior parietal and
pre-frontal cortex are important. Pre-frontal regions serve
inhibiting function, as evidenced by patients with lesions in
these areas, who develop ego-centric perspectives when
confronted with moral dilemmas. Right prefrontal lesions result
in deficits in autobiographical memory. Functional studies show
activation of this region during autobiographical memory
(recall). The Right inferior parietal region is important:
Stimulation of this region results in "out of body"
experiences. Functional studies show activation when people
"put themselves in others shoes." The Right fronto-parietal
region is important: lesions to this area result in anasognosia,
where patients dis-own body parts. 3/5
Abstract
The abilities to identify with others and
to distinguish between self and other play a pivotal role in
intersubjective transactions. Here, we marshal evidence from
developmental science, social psychology and neuroscience
(including clinical neuropsychology) that support the view of a
common representation network (both at the computational and
neural levels) between self and other. However, sharedness does
not mean identicality, otherwise representations of self and
others would completely overlap, and lead to confusion. We argue
that self-awareness and agency are integral components for
navigating within these shared representations. We suggest that
within this shared neural network the inferior parietal cortex
and the prefrontal cortex in the right hemisphere play a special
role in interpersonal awareness.
Jevning, R., R. Anand, M. Biedebach and G.
Fernando (1996). "Effects on regional cerebral blood flow of
transcendental meditation." Physiology & Behavior 59(3):
399-402.
Abstract
Previous blood flow measurements in this
laboratory have indicated increased nonrenal nonhepatic blood
flow during behaviorally induced rest states, especially during
the stylized mental technique of transcendental meditation (TM).
We have hypothesized that increased cerebral blood flow (CBF)
may account for most of the increased nonrenal nonhepatic blood
flow during TM. In this report we describe increased frontal and
occipital CBF in TM determined by the electrical impedance
plethysmographic methodology known as rheoencephalography (REG),
which allows noninvasive, nondisturbing, continuous CBF
monitoring. We also report high correlation between increased
CBF and decreased cerebrovascular resistance (CVR) during TM,
suggesting that a contributing vascular mechanism to the
increased CBF may be decreased CVR. Because only a small amount
of stage 1 sleep was observed during TM and because stage 1
sleep has been reported to be accompanied by decreased CBF, we
believe that sleep did not contribute to the CBF increase. The
data of this study are consistent with the hypothesis that blood
flow changes during TM comprise a patterned response subserving
needs of increased cerebral activity.
Kabat-Zinn, J., E. Wheeler, T. Light, A.
Skillings, M. J. Scharf, T. G. Cropley, D. Hosmer and J. D.
Bernhard (1998). "Influence of a mindfulness meditation-based
stress reduction intervention on rates of skin clearing in
patients with moderate to severe psoriasis undergoing
phototherapy (UVB) and photochemotherapy (PUVA)."
Psychosomatic Medicine 60(5): 625-32.
Comments
Positive results, low statistical
signficance 3/5.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: This study tests the hypothesis
that stress reduction methods based on mindfulness meditation
can positively influence the rate at which psoriasis clears in
patients undergoing phototherapy or photochemotherapy treatment.
METHODS: Thirty-seven patients with psoriasis about to undergo
ultraviolet phototherapy (UVB) or photochemotherapy (PUVA) were
randomly assigned to one of two conditions: a mindfulness
meditation-based stress reduction intervention guided by
audiotaped instructions during light treatments, or a control
condition consisting of the light treatments alone with no taped
instructions. Psoriasis status was assessed in three ways:
direct inspection by unblinded clinic nurses; direct inspection
by physicians blinded to the patient's study condition (tape or
no-tape); and blinded physician evaluation of photographs of
psoriasis lesions. Four sequential indicators of skin status
were monitored during the study: a First Response Point, a
Turning Point, a Halfway Point, and a Clearing Point. RESULTS:
Cox-proportional hazards regression analysis showed that
subjects in the tape groups reached the Halfway Point (p = .013)
and the Clearing Point (p = .033) significantly more rapidly
than those in the no-tape condition, for both UVB and PUVA
treatments. CONCLUSIONS: A brief mindfulness meditation-based
stress reduction intervention delivered by audiotape during
ultraviolet light therapy can increase the rate of resolution of
psoriatic lesions in patients with psoriasis.
Kakigi, R., H. Nakata, K. Inui, N. Hiroe,
O. Nagata, M. Honda, S. Tanaka, N. Sadato and M. Kawakami
(2005). "Intracerebral pain processing in a Yoga Master who
claims not to feel pain during meditation." European Journal
of Pain 9(5): 581-589.
Comments
This is the yogi who did not feel pain.
fMRI analysis during painful stimulation corroborates subjective
accounts that the yogi does not feel pain during yoga
meditation. See Arumbula (2001) for another study of this
meditation master. 3/5
Abstract
We recorded magnetoencephalography (MEG)
and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) following
noxious laser stimulation in a Yoga Master who claims not to
feel pain when meditating. As for background MEG activity, the
power of alpha frequency bands peaking at around 10 Hz was much
increased during meditation over occipital, parietal and
temporal regions, when compared with the non-meditative state,
which might mean the subject was very relaxed, though he did not
fall asleep, during meditation. Primary pain-related cortical
activities recorded from primary (SI) and secondary
somatosensory cortices (SII) by MEG were very weak or absent
during meditation. As for fMRI recording, there were remarkable
changes in levels of activity in the thalamus, SII-insula
(mainly the insula) and cingulate cortex between meditation and
non-meditation. Activities in all three regions were increased
during non-meditation, similar to results in normal subjects. In
contrast, activities in all three regions were weaker during
meditation, and the level was lower than the baseline in the
thalamus. Recent neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies
have clarified that the emotional aspect of pain perception
mainly involves the insula and cingulate cortex. Though we
cannot clearly explain this unusual condition in the Yoga
Master, a change of multiple regions relating to pain perception
could be responsible, since pain is a complex sensory and
emotional experience.
Lau, M. A. M., Shelley F. (2005).
"Integrating Mindfulness Meditation With Cognitive and
Behavioural Therapies: The Challenge of Combining Acceptance-and
Change-Based Strategies." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
50(13): 863-870.
Comments
Mindfulness practice, based upon Buddhist
principles, incorporates acceptance as a key idea. This occurs
in meditation, where thoughts are accepted without
judgment--either grasping or aversion. Cognitive therapy is
based on change. In particular, for people with Bipolar
Disorder, change based therapies are not as effective as
acceptance based approaches, because the former tend to amplify
negative self-image that is already part of the patient's
developmental history. Measures of success of mindfulness based
approaches are discussed. 3/5
Abstract
Recent innovations in psychological
treatments have integrated mindfulness meditation techniques
with traditional cognitive and behavioural therapies,
challenging traditional cognitive and behavioural therapists to
integrate acceptance- and change-based strategies. This article
details how 2 treatments, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
and dialectical behaviour therapy, have met this challenge. We
review the integration rationale underlying the 2 treatments,
how the treatments combine strategies from each modality to
accomplish treatment goals, implications for therapist training,
and treatment effectiveness. In addition, we discuss the
challenges of assessing the benefits of incorporating
acceptance-based strategies. Both therapies have integrated
acceptance-based mindfulness approaches with change-based
cognitive and behavioural therapies to create efficacious
treatments.
Lazar, S. W., G. Bush, R. L. Gollub, G. L.
Fricchione, G. Khalsa and H. Benson (2000). "Functional brain
mapping of the relaxation response and meditation."
Neuroreport 11(7): 1581-5.
Abstract
Meditation is a conscious mental process
that induces a set of integrated physiologic changes termed the
relaxation response. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
was used to identify and characterize the brain regions that are
active during a simple form of meditation. Significant
(p<10(-7)) signal increases were observed in the group-averaged
data in the dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices,
hippocampus/parahippocampus, temporal lobe, pregenual anterior
cingulate cortex, striatum, and pre- and post-central gyri
during meditation. Global fMRI signal decreases were also noted,
although these were probably secondary to cardiorespiratory
changes that often accompany meditation. The results indicate
that the practice of meditation activates neural structures
involved in attention and control of the autonomic nervous
system.
Lazar, S. W., C. E. Kerr, R. H. Wasserman,
J. R. Gray, D. N. Greve, M. T. Treadway, M. McGarvey, B. T.
Quinn, J. A. Dusek, H. Benson, S. L. Rauch, C. I. Moore and B.
Fischl (2005). "Meditation experience is associated with
increased cortical thickness." Neuroreport 16(17):
1893-7.
Comments
Cross-sectional study comparing Insight
meditators (10 yrs) with non-meditators. Cortical thickness was
measured with MRI. Meditators have thicker cortices in some
regions, although overall means of the two groups were not
different. Insula and BA 9/10 (frontal lobe) were thicker in
meditators. These regions correspond to somatosensory, visual,
auditory and interceoptive processing. The frontal lobe areas
that showed thickening have been shown to be involved with
emotion and cognition. Thickness was moderately correlated with
years of meditation experience, and respiratory decrease during
meditation (proposed as a metric of total meditation
experience). Note that aging is correlated with cortical
thinning, which may have been a confounding factor to diminish
the actual correlation with meditation experience. Further,
longitudinal studies will be necessary to establish whether
meditation training causes cortical thickening. 3/5
Abstract
Previous research indicates that long-term
meditation practice is associated with altered resting
electroencephalogram patterns, suggestive of long lasting
changes in brain activity. We hypothesized that meditation
practice might also be associated with changes in the brain's
physical structure. Magnetic resonance imaging was used to
assess cortical thickness in 20 participants with extensive
Insight meditation experience, which involves focused attention
to internal experiences. Brain regions associated with
attention, interoception and sensory processing were thicker in
meditation participants than matched controls, including the
prefrontal cortex and right anterior insula. Between-group
differences in prefrontal cortical thickness were most
pronounced in older participants, suggesting that meditation
might offset age-related cortical thinning. Finally, the
thickness of two regions correlated with meditation experience.
These data provide the first structural evidence for
experience-dependent cortical plasticity associated with
meditation practice.
Lehmann, D., P. L. Faber, P. Achermann, D.
Jeanmonod, L. R. R. Gianotti and D. Pizzagalli (2001). "Brain
sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally
meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and
experience of the self." Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging
108(2): 111-121.
Comments
Expert Buddhist meditator was monitored
with EEG & LORETA (Low Resolution (7 mm) 3D Tomography) WHILE
MEDITATING ON EMPTINESS. Activation of the Right prefrontal
cortex, and Right superior frontal gyrus was observed. See
Discussion, Sect. 4 Paragraph 5 for comparison with other
contexts/disorders of self/other. This study is described in
J.H. Austin, Zen Brain Reflections, p.208. 3/5
Abstract
Multichannel EEG of an advanced meditator
was recorded during four different, repeated meditations.
Locations of intracerebral source gravity centers as well as Low
Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography (LORETA) functional images
of the EEG ‘gamma’ (35-44 Hz) frequency band
activity differed significantly between meditations. Thus,
during volitionally self-initiated, altered states of
consciousness that were associated with different subjective
meditation states, different brain neuronal populations were
active. The brain areas predominantly involved during the
self-induced meditation states aiming at visualization (right
posterior) and verbalization (left central) agreed with known
brain functional neuroanatomy. The brain areas involved in the
self-induced, meditational dissolution and reconstitution of the
experience of the self (right fronto-temporal) are discussed in
the context of neural substrates implicated in normal
self-representation and reality testing, as well as in
depersonalization disorders and detachment from self after brain
lesions.
Lutz, A., L. L. Greischar, N. B. Rawlings,
M. Ricard and R. J. Davidson (2004). "Long-term meditators
self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental
practice." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America 101(46): 16369-73.
Comments
Expert Buddhist meditators were studied
with EEG. Large amplitude, gamma band synchrony was observed
while practitioners meditated on compassion. Gamma EEG signals
are associated with selective attention. Synchrony of EEG
signals means that large assemblies of neurons are "involved" in
the cognitive activity, in this case frontal and parietal
cortical regions. Together the observations of large amplitude
gamma signals, and synchrony of these signals, suggest that the
practitioners were thoroughly absorbed into the object of
meditation. This is an important paper because of its findings,
and it's thorough execution. Score: 4/5
Abstract
Practitioners understand "meditation," or
mental training, to be a process of familiarization with one's
own mental life leading to long-lasting changes in cognition and
emotion. Little is known about this process and its impact on
the brain. Here we find that long-term Buddhist practitioners
self-induce sustained electroencephalographic high-amplitude
gamma-band oscillations and phase-synchrony during meditation.
These electroencephalogram patterns differ from those of
controls, in particular over lateral frontoparietal electrodes.
In addition, the ratio of gamma-band activity (25-42 Hz) to slow
oscillatory activity (4-13 Hz) is initially higher in the
resting baseline before meditation for the practitioners than
the controls over medial frontoparietal electrodes. This
difference increases sharply during meditation over most of the
scalp electrodes and remains higher than the initial baseline in
the postmeditation baseline. These data suggest that mental
training involves temporal integrative mechanisms and may induce
short-term and long-term neural changes.
Lutz, A., J.-P. Lachaux, J. Martinerie and
F. J. Varela (2002). "Guiding the study of brain dynamics by
using first-person data: synchrony patterns correlate with
ongoing conscious states during a simple visual task."
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 99(3): 1586-91.
Comments
This investigation studied the perception
of 3D stereograms with EEG. Gamma band synchrony was observed
to coincide with attention. Expectation of the stereogram was
correlated with synchrony in the frontal lobe as well as
occipitoparietal region, whereas when subjects were not
expecting the stereogram, no such gamma synchrony was observed
in the frontal lobe. This paper is important because it
demonstrates that expectancy is important in characterizing the
brain state of a given moment. 4/5
Abstract
Even during well-calibrated cognitive
tasks, successive brain responses to repeated identical
stimulations are highly variable. The source of this variability
is believed to reside mainly in fluctuations of the subject's
cognitive "context" defined by his/her attentive state,
spontaneous thought process, strategy to carry out the task, and
so on...As these factors are hard to manipulate precisely, they
are usually not controlled, and the variability is discarded by
averaging techniques. We combined first-person data and the
analysis of neural processes to reduce such noise. We presented
the subjects with a three-dimensional illusion and recorded
their electrical brain activity and their own report about their
cognitive context. Trials were clustered according to these
first-person data, and separate dynamical analyses were
conducted for each cluster. We found that (i) characteristic
patterns of endogenous synchrony appeared in frontal electrodes
before stimulation. These patterns depended on the degree of
preparation and the immediacy of perception as verbally
reported. (ii) These patterns were stable for several
recordings. (iii) Preparatory states modulate both the
behavioral performance and the evoked and induced synchronous
patterns that follow. (iv) These results indicated that
first-person data can be used to detect and interpret neural
processes.
Meili, T. and J. Kabat-Zinn (2004). "The
power of the human heart: a story of trauma and recovery and its
implications for rehabilitation and healing." Advances in
Mind-Body Medicine 20(1): 6-16.
Abstract
Ms Trisha Meili revealed her identity as
the Central Park Jogger in a presentation at Spaulding
Rehabilitation Hospital in Boston in May 2003. Her co-presenter
was Dr Jon Kabat-Zinn, whose teachings on mindfulness and
meditation had been important in Ms Meili's rehabilitation
process. This transcript of that conversation describes the
various phases she underwent in her recovery, and documents the
role of her self-discovered practice of mindfulness in restoring
her emotional and physical functioning. Dr Kabat-Zinn reflects
on the deeper meaning of the term "rehabilitation," and
demonstrates its natural connections to the practice of
meditation. A final question and answer section with audience
members (clinicians, brain injury survivors and their families)
documents the role of emotional support and inspiration in
recovery from devastating injury.
Newberg, A., A. Alavi, M. Baime, M.
Pourdehnad, J. Santanna and E. d'Aquili (2001). "The measurement
of regional cerebral blood flow during the complex cognitive
task of meditation: a preliminary SPECT study." Psychiatry
Research 106(2): 113-22.
Comments
Experienced (15 yrs) Tibetan Buddhist
meditators were studied before/after 1 hr meditation on
visualization. Measurements with SPECT. Results: (1)
Increased activity of pre-frontal cortex resulting from
meditation (2) Anti-correlation between prefrontal cortex
activity and superior parietal lobe. (3) Correlation between
pre-frontal cortex and thalamus activity resulting from
meditation. (4) No difference between baseline scans of
meditators and non-meditator controls, including laterality
index, except for thalamus -- meditators had more Right sided
activity than non-meditators. This paper has a comprehensive
discussion of comparable imaging and EEG studies of meditators.
4/5
Abstract
This study measured changes in regional
cerebral blood flow (rCBF) during the complex cognitive task of
meditation using single photon emission computed tomography.
Eight experienced Tibetan Buddhist meditators were injected at
baseline with 7 mCi HMPAO and scanned 20 min later for 45 min.
The subjects then meditated for 1 h at which time they were
injected with 25 mCi HMPAO and scanned 20 min later for 30 min.
Values were obtained for regions of interest in major brain
structures and normalized to whole brain activity. The
percentage change between meditation and baseline was compared.
Correlations between structures were also determined.
Significantly increased rCBF (P<0.05) was observed in the
cingulate gyrus, inferior and orbital frontal cortex,
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and thalamus. The change
in rCBF in the left DLPFC correlated negatively (P<0.05) with
that in the left superior parietal lobe. Increased frontal rCBF
may reflect focused concentration and thalamic increases overall
increased cortical activity during meditation. The correlation
between the DLPFC and the superior parietal lobe may reflect an
altered sense of space experienced during meditation. These
results suggest a complex rCBF pattern during the task of
meditation.
Newberg, A., M. Pourdehnad, A. Alavi and E.
G. d'Aquili (2003). "Cerebral blood flow during meditative
prayer: preliminary findings and methodological issues."
Perceptual & Motor Skills 97(2): 625-30.
Abstract
Meditative practices typically require
several coordinated cognitive activities. This study measured
changes in cerebral blood flow during "verbal" based meditation
by Franciscan nuns involving the internal repetition of a
particular phrase. These results are compared with those we
previously described in eight Buddhist meditators who use a type
of "visualization" technique. Three experienced practitioners of
verbal meditation were injected via i.v. at rest with 260 MBq of
Tc-99m HMPAO and scanned 30 min. later on a triple head SPECT
camera for 45 min. Following the baseline scan, subjects
meditated for approximately 40 min. at which time they were
injected with 925 MBq of HMPAO while they continued to meditate
for 10 min. more (total of 50 min. of meditation). The injection
during meditation was designed not to disturb practice. Subjects
were scanned 20 min. later for 30 min. Counts were obtained for
regions of interest for major brain structures and normalized to
whole-brain blood flow. Compared to baseline, mean verbal
meditation scans showed increased blood flow in the prefrontal
cortex (7.1%), inferior parietal lobes (6.8%), and inferior
frontal lobes (9.0%). There was a strong inverse correlation
between the blood flow, change in the prefrontal cortex and in
the ipsilateral superior parietal lobe (p<.01). This study on a
limited number of subjects demonstrated the feasibility of
studying different types of meditation with neuroimaging
techniques, suggested that several coordinated cognitive
processes occur during meditation, and also raised important
methodological issues.
Peng, C. K., I. C. Henry, J. E. Mietus, J.
M. Hausdorff, G. Khalsa, H. Benson and A. L. Goldberger (2004).
"Heart rate dynamics during three forms of meditation."
International Journal of Cardiology 95(1): 19-27.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to
quantify and compare the instantaneous heart rate dynamics and
cardiopulmonary interactions during sequential performance of
three meditation protocols with different breathing patterns.
BACKGROUND: We analyzed beat-to-beat heart rate and continuous
breathing signals from 10 experienced meditators (4 females; 6
males; mean age 42 years; range 29-55 years) during three
traditional interventions: relaxation response, breath of fire,
and segmented breathing. RESULTS: Heart rate and respiratory
dynamics were generally similar during the relaxation response
and segmented breathing. We observed high amplitude, low
frequency (approximately 0.05-0.1 Hz) oscillations due to
respiratory sinus arrhythmia during both the relaxation response
and segmented breathing, along with a significantly (p<0.05)
increased coherence between heart rate and breathing during
these two maneuvers when compared to baseline. The third
technique, breath of fire, was associated with a different
pattern of response, marked by a significant increase in mean
heart rate with respect to baseline (p<0.01), and a significant
decrease in coherence between heart rate and breathing (p<0.05).
CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that different
meditative/breathing protocols may evoke common heart rate
effects, as well as specific responses. The results support the
concept of a "meditation paradox," since a variety of relaxation
and meditative techniques may produce active rather than
quiescent cardiac dynamics, associated with prominent low
frequency heart rate oscillations or increases in mean resting
heart rate. These findings also underscore the need to
critically assess traditional frequency domain heart rate
variability parameters in making inferences about autonomic
alterations during meditation with slow breathing.
Peng, C. K., J. E. Mietus, Y. Liu, G.
Khalsa, P. S. Douglas, H. Benson and A. L. Goldberger (1999).
"Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation
techniques. ." International Journal of Cardiology 70(2):
101-7.
Comments
It is not clear to me what the significance
of this paper is. See Research Notes section for comment that
appeared in a later issue of this journal.
Abstract
We report extremely prominent heart rate
oscillations associated with slow breathing during specific
traditional forms of Chinese Chi and Kundalini Yoga meditation
techniques in healthy young adults. We applied both spectral
analysis and a novel analytic technique based on the Hilbert
transform to quantify these heart rate dynamics. The amplitude
of these oscillations during meditation was significantly
greater than in the pre-meditation control state and also in
three non-meditation control groups: i) elite athletes during
sleep, ii) healthy young adults during metronomic breathing, and
iii) healthy young adults during spontaneous nocturnal
breathing. This finding, along with the marked variability of
the beat-to-beat heart rate dynamics during such profound
meditative states, challenges the notion of meditation as only
an autonomically quiescent state.
Saxe, G. A., J. R. Hebert, J. F. Carmody,
J. Kabat-Zinn, P. H. Rosenzweig, D. Jarzobski, G. W. Reed and R.
D. Blute (2001). "Can diet in conjunction with stress reduction
affect the rate of increase in prostate specific antigen after
biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer?" Journal of
Urology 166(6): 2202-7.
Comments
Yes, with low statistical significance.
Abstract
PURPOSE: Epidemiological and laboratory
evidence indicates that a Western diet is associated with an
increased incidence of prostate cancer. Specific components of
the diet, such as high saturated fat, low fiber and high meat
content, may have greatest clinical significance in the later
stages of tumor promotion and progression. However, departure
from the conventional diet is difficult to initiate and
maintain. Therefore, we combined the well-known
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program with a low
saturated fat, high-fiber, plant-based diet to determine the
effect on the rate of change in prostate specific antigen (PSA)
in patients with biochemical recurrence after prostatectomy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: We enrolled 10 men and their partners in
a 4-month group-based diet and MBSR intervention. A pre-study
post-study design in which each subject served as his own
control was used to compare the rate of increase in and doubling
time of PSA before and after intervention. RESULTS: The rate of
PSA increase decreased in 8 of 10 men, while 3 had a decrease in
absolute PSA. Results of the signed rank test indicated a
significant decrease in the rate of increase in the intervention
period (p = 0.01). Estimated median doubling time increased from
6.5 months (95% confidence interval 3.7 to 10.1) before to 17.7
months (95% confidence interval 7.8 to infinity) after the
intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Our small study provides evidence
that a plant-based diet delivered in the context of MBSR
decreases the rate of PSA increase and may slow the rate of
tumor progression in cases of biochemically recurrent prostate
cancer. Larger-scale randomized studies are warranted to explore
further the preventive and therapeutic potential of diet and
lifestyle modification in men with prostate cancer.
Schneider, R. H., C. N. Alexander, F.
Staggers, M. Rainforth, J. W. Salerno, A. Hartz, S. Arndt, V. A.
Barnes and S. I. Nidich (2005). "Long-Term Effects of Stress
Reduction on Mortality in Persons >=55 Years of Age With
Systemic Hypertension." The American Journal of Cardiology
95(9): 1060-1064.
Comments
TM makes you live longer, at least if you
are already hypertensive.
Abstract
Psychosocial stress contributes to high
blood pressure and subsequent cardiovascular morbidity and
mortality. Previous controlled studies have associated
decreasing stress with the Transcendental Meditation (TM)
program with lower blood pressure. The objective of the present
study was to evaluate, over the long term, all-cause and
cause-specific mortality in older subjects who had high blood
pressure and who participated in randomized controlled trials
that included the TM program and other behavioral
stress-decreasing interventions. Patient data were pooled from 2
published randomized controlled trials that compared TM, other
behavioral interventions, and usual therapy for high blood
pressure. There were 202 subjects, including 77 whites (mean age
81 years) and 125 African-American (mean age 66 years) men and
women. In these studies, average baseline blood pressure was in
the prehypertensive or stage I hypertension range. Follow-up of
vital status and cause of death over a maximum of 18.8 years was
determined from the National Death Index. Survival analysis was
used to compare intervention groups on mortality rates after
adjusting for study location. Mean follow-up was 7.6
[plus-or-minus sign] 3.5 years. Compared with combined controls,
the TM group showed a 23% decrease in the primary outcome of
all-cause mortality after maximum follow-up (relative risk 0.77,
p = 0.039). Secondary analyses showed a 30% decrease in the rate
of cardiovascular mortality (relative risk 0.70, p = 0.045) and
a 49% decrease in the rate of mortality due to cancer (relative
risk 0.49, p = 0.16) in the TM group compared with combined
controls. These results suggest that a specific
stress-decreasing approach used in the prevention and control of
high blood pressure, such as the TM program, may contribute to
decreased mortality from all causes and cardiovascular disease
in older subjects who have systemic hypertension.
Schneider, R. H., F. Staggers, C. N.
Alexander, W. Sheppard, M. Rainforth, K. Kondwani, S. Smith and
C. G. King (1995). "A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress
Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans."
Hypertension 26(5): 820-827.
Comments
Study demonstrates use of 3 month
meditation program to lower blood pressure of hypertensive
African Americans. This study has been widely cited in popular
press and other meditation literature. Results have unusually
good statistical significance, for papers in this field. 3/5.
Abstract
We tested the short-term efficacy and
feasibility of two stress education approaches to the treatment
of mild hypertension in older African Americans. This was a
randomized, controlled, single-blind trial with 3 months of
follow-up in a primary care, inner-city health center. Of 213
African American men and women screened, 127 individuals (aged
55 to 85 years with initial diastolic pressure of 90 to 109 mm
Hg, systolic pressure of [<=]189 mm Hg, and final baseline
blood pressure of [<=]179/104 mm Hg) were selected. Of these,
16 did not complete follow-up blood pressure measurements.
Mental and physical stress-reduction approaches (Transcendental
Meditation and progressive muscle relaxation) were compared with
a lifestyle modification education control program and with each
other. The primary outcome measures were changes in clinic
diastolic and systolic pressures from baseline to final
follow-up, measured by blinded observers. The secondary measures
were linear blood pressure trends, changes in home blood
pressure, and intervention compliance. Adjusted for significant
baseline differences and compared with control, Transcendental
Meditation reduced systolic pressure by 10.7 mm Hg (P<.0003) and
diastolic pressure by 6.4 mm Hg (P<.00005). Progressive muscle
relaxation lowered systolic pressure by 4.7 mm Hg (P=.054) and
diastolic pressure by 3.3 mm Hg (P<.02). The reductions in the
Transcendental Meditation group were significantly greater than
in the progressive muscle relaxation group for both systolic
blood pressure (P=.02) and diastolic blood pressure (P=.03).
Linear trend analysis confirmed these patterns. Compliance was
high in both stress-reduction groups. Home systolic but not
diastolic pressure changes were similar to clinic changes.
Selected mental and physical stress-reduction techniques
demonstrated efficacy in reducing mild hypertension in this
sample of older African Americans. Of the two techniques
Transcendental Meditation was approximately twice as effective
as progressive muscle relaxation. Long-term effects and
generalizability to other populations require further
evaluation.
Speca, M., L. E. Carlson, E. Goodey and M.
Angen (2000). "A randomized, wait-list controlled clinical
trial: the effect of a mindfulness meditation-based stress
reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer
outpatients." Psychosomatic Medicine 62(5):
613-22.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was
to assess the effects of participation in a mindfulness
meditation-based stress reduction program on mood disturbance
and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients. METHODS: A
randomized, wait-list controlled design was used. A convenience
sample of eligible cancer patients enrolled after giving
informed consent and were randomly assigned to either an
immediate treatment condition or a wait-list control condition.
Patients completed the Profile of Mood States and the Symptoms
of Stress Inventory both before and after the intervention. The
intervention consisted of a weekly meditation group lasting 1.5
hours for 7 weeks plus home meditation practice. RESULTS: Ninety
patients (mean age, 51 years) completed the study. The group was
heterogeneous in type and stage of cancer. Patients' mean
preintervention scores on dependent measures were equivalent
between groups. After the intervention, patients in the
treatment group had significantly lower scores on Total Mood
Disturbance and subscales of Depression, Anxiety, Anger, and
Confusion and more Vigor than control subjects. The treatment
group also had fewer overall Symptoms of Stress; fewer
Cardiopulmonary and Gastrointestinal symptoms; less Emotional
Irritability, Depression, and Cognitive Disorganization; and
fewer Habitual Patterns of stress. Overall reduction in Total
Mood Disturbance was 65%, with a 31% reduction in Symptoms of
Stress. CONCLUSIONS: This program was effective in decreasing
mood disturbance and stress symptoms in both male and female
patients with a wide variety of cancer diagnoses, stages of
illness, and ages. cancer, stress, mood, intervention,
mindfulness.
Sudsuang, R., V. Chentanex and K. Veluvan
(1991). "Effect of Buddhist Meditation on Serum Cortisol and
Total Protein Levels, Blood Pressure, Pulse Rate, Lung Volume
and Reaction Time." Physiology & Behavior 50(3):
543-548.
Comments
Study was of novice meditators,
participating in 6 week summer program (college students) that
included extensive meditation (1-4 hours/day). Cortisol, blood
pressure and pulse rate changes are consistent with other
studies of TM practitioners and Zen practitioners. Greater
effect was seen in Group A, the subset of meditators that
self-reported the best aptitude at practice. For example, blood
pressure of Group A was 111/73 before and 105/64 after 6 week
program; change is significant at two sigma level. Serum
Cortisol was 12.3% before and 9.3% after 6 week program; change
is significant at two sigma level. 3/5
Abstract
Serum cortisol and total protein levels,
blood pressure, heart rate, lung volume, and reaction time were
studied in 52 males 20-25 years of age practicing Dhammakya
Buddhist meditation, and in 30 males of the same age group not
practicing meditation. It was found that after meditation,
serum cortisol levels were significantly reduced, serum total
protein level significantly increased, and systolic pressure,
diastolic pressure and pulse rate significantly reduced. Vital
capacity, tidal volume and maximal voluntary ventilation were
significantly lower after meditation than before. There were
also significant decreases in reaction time after meditation
practice. The percentage decrease in reaction time during
meditation was 22%, while in subjects untrained in meditation,
the percentage decrease was only 7%. Results from these studies
indicate that practising Dhammakaya Buddhist meditation produces
biochemical and physiological changes and reduces the reaction
time.
Travis, F., J. Tecce, A. Arenander and R.
K. Wallace (2002). "Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and
contingent negative variation characterize the integration of
transcendental and waking states." Biological Psychology
61(3): 293-319.
Abstract
Long-term meditating subjects report that
transcendental experiences (TE), which first occurred during
their Transcendental Meditation (TM) practice, now subjectively
co-exist with waking and sleeping states. To investigate
neurophysiological correlates of this integrated state, we
recorded EEG in these subjects and in two comparison groups
during simple and choice contingent negative variation (CNV)
tasks. In individuals reporting the integration of the
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